Kamis, 24 April 2014

Penerjemahan bahasa berbantuan komputer

SAUSSURE : BAHASA SEBAGAI FAKTA SOSIAL

Menjelang akhir abad XIX - rupanya semuanya tampak baik untuk waktu itu, dan sebagian masih tetap meyakinkan untuk masa sekarang - persamaan bahasa dengan biologi telah banyak ditolak. Hal ini menimbulkan kesulitan pemahaman bahasa sebagai suatu disiplin akademis: Jika bahasa bukan species hidup, dalam arti apakah bahasa merupakan "barang" yang dapat diselidiki? Orang awam senang saja bahwa bahasa Perancis merupakan sesuatu yang dapat dipelajari, yang memiliki perangkat tertentu dan dalam beberapa hal sama atau serupa dengan bahasa Inggris tapi dalam hal lain berbeda; tapi bila bahasa Perancis suatu barang dan barang itu merupakan sesuatu yang aneh. Sudah jelas bahwa bahasa itu bukan benda konkrit seperti meja ataupun seperti hamparan daratan yang disebut Perancis. Anda tidak dapat melihat ataupun mendengar bahasa Perancis itu. Yang dapat Anda dengar ialah Gaston si pelayan berkata "pas si bete ...": Anda dapat melihat sebaris cetakan huruf dalam selembar surat kabar "Le Monde; tapi bagaimanakah kita dapat mengartikan suatu wujud yang disebut bahasa Perancis yang berada di belakang beribu-ribu fenomena konkrit yang dapat diamati seperti dalam dua contoh tadi? Macam wujud apakah bahasa itu? Paradigma biologi menunjukkan hubungan antara bicara dan bahasa Perancis seperti hubungan antara Wortel (carrot) tertentu dan species wortel: Dan sampai dengan ditolaknya pendapat paradigma biologi ini, pendapat seperti ini sudah dianggap memuaskan – walaupun orang hanya dapat melihat atau makan wortel, orang menilainya cukup penting untuk membicarakan species wortel dan membahas, katakanlah, hubungan genetikanya dengan species ubi-ubian. Tapi pertama kali biologi sudah terlempar ke sisi jalan; yang kedua, orang sudah berpendapat bahwa paradigma tersebut tidak dapat memberikan jawaban yang lengkap terhadap pembahasan yang sedang berlangsung. Dalam biologi, karena species merupakan abstraksi, paling tidak individu species tersebut merupakan barang yang konkrit, maka beberapa macam barang lebih dapat mudah dirasa daripada wortel. Tapi analogi linguistik terhadap individu biologi adalah idiolek; dan ini hampir semua, bila tidak keseluruhannya, sama seperti abstraksi dari konsep yang luas tentang bahasa. Kita tidak dapat mendengar idiolek Gaston sebagai suatu wujud; kita hanya dapat mendengar contoh-contoh idiolek tersebut – komentar yang ia ucapkan kalau ia melihat uang tip yang kita tinggalkan, dan contoh idiolek itu tidak mempunyai kesejajaran dalam biologi. Jadi walaupun tidak dianggap sebagai masalah tertentu oleh ahli bahasa abad XIX, pertanyaan “Bagaimanakah pengertian wujud yang disebut bahasa atau dialek yang mendasari realita yang dapat dirasakan daripada ujaran-ujaran tertentu? Tetap terbuka pada masa itu. Orang yang menjawabnya yang dapat memuaskan para ahli yang semasa dengannya serta para ahli dewasa ini ialah sarjana Swiss: Ferdinand de Saussure.

            Mongin Ferdinand de Saussure, nama lengkapnya, dilahirkan di Jenewa pada tahun 1857, anak keluarga kaum Huguenot yang pindah dari Lorraine selama perang agama di Perancis akhir abad XVI. Walaupun orang sekarang menganggap Saussure sebagai orang pertama yang memberikan definisi tentang pengertian yang disebut linguistik sinkronis – yaitu kajian tentang bahsa sebagai system yang terdapat pada waktu tertentu, yang dibedakan dengan linguistik historis (yang untuk membedakannya Saussure menamakan linguistik diakronis) yang bagi para ahli semasanya merupakan satu-satunya pendekatan yang ada untuk mempelajari bahwa waktu itu – pada masa hidupnya tidak dimaksudkan untuk menjadikannya terkenal. Saussure mendapat didikan sebagai ahli bahasa kuno, dan berhasil ketika masih berusia muda menerbitkan buku yang berjudul Memoire sur lesysteme primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-europeennes (1878). Buku itu diterbitkan beberapa minggu setelah ulang tahunnya yang ke XXI: Ketika ia masih menjadi mahasiswa di Jerman. Buku tersebut merupakan salah satu dasar rekonstruksi bahasa Proto Indo-Eropa. Saussure memberikan kuliah Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes di Paris dari tahun 1881 sampai tahun 1891, sebelum ia kembali mengajar di Jenewa, semua penerbitannya, dan hampir semua kuliah yang diberikannya, seluruh karyanya lebih banyak berhubungan dengan linguistik historis daripada linguistik sinkronis, dengan analisis yang mendalam tentang berbagai bahasa Indo-Eropa dan bukan dengan teori umum yang menjadikannya ia sekarang terkenal.

            Padahal, walaupun Saussure menghasilkan karyanya tentang teori linguistik secara umum pada sekitar 1890 (Koerner, 1973 : 29), tampaknya ia segan memberikannya pada orang lain, dan kisah bagaimana gagasan-gagasannya dapat masuk ke penerbitan merupakan cerita yang aneh. Pada akhir tahun 1906 ia diminta untuk mengambil alih tanggung jawab dalam memberikan kuliah tentang linguistik umum dan sejarah serta perbandingan bahasa-bahasa Indo-Eropa dari seorang sarjana yang telah berhenti dari dinasnya selama 30 tahun; Saussure mengajarkan bahan itu pada sisa masa kuliahnya dan pada kuliah-kuliah tahun 1908-1909 dan tahun 1910-1911. Pada tahun-tahun yang pertama Saussure membatasi kuliahnya hanya tentang hal-hal sejarah; tetapi ketika ia memberikan pada tahun-tahun yang kedua ia memasukkan juga pengantar singkat tentang linguistik sinkronis, dan pada kuliah yang ketiga, seluruh semester digunakan untuk memberikan teori linguistik sinkronis. Tak lama sesudah itu ia meninggal, tanpa sempat menerbitkan bahan teori yang manapun. Beberapa orang telah pernah memintanya untuk menerbitkan, tapi ia selalu menjawab bahwa untuk menyusun bahan-bahan kuliahnya sangat menyita waktu, tetapi dua orang rekannya, Charles Bally dan Albert Sechehaye memutuskan untuk menyusun bahan-bahan tadi dari catatan kuliah para mahasiswa bersama-sama dengan catatan kuliah yang ditinggalkan Saussure. Buku yang mereka hasilkan yaitu berjudul Cours de linguistique gererale (Saussure 1916) merupakan suatu media yang dapat digunakan oleh sarjana di dunia untuk memahami pemikiran Saussure, dank arena dokumen inilah Saussure dikenal sebagai bapak ahli linguistik abad XX.




Saussure : LANGUAGE AS A SOCIAL FACT

Towards the end of the XIX century - apparently everything looks good for the time, and some still remain convincing for the present - the language similarities with biology has been widely rejected . This raises the difficulty of understanding the language as an academic discipline : If the language is not the species alive , in the sense of whether the language is " stuff " that can be investigated ? A layman pleased that the French language is something that can be learned , which have certain devices and in some cases the same or similar to English but in other respects different ; but when the French language in an item and that item is something strange . It is clear that the language was not a concrete object such as a table or as a stretch of land called France . You can’t see or hear the French language . You can hear is Gaston the waiter said " pas si bete ... " : You can see a line of printed letters on a sheet of newspaper " Le Monde " : but how can we interpret a being called the French language which is behind thousands and thousands of concrete phenomena that can be observed as in the two examples that? kind of form is that language ? paradigm of biology shows the relationship between the speech and language of France such as the relationship between carrot and certain species of carrots : and to the rejection of the biological paradigm opinion , such opinion this is considered satisfactory - although one can only see or eat carrots , vote important enough to talk about carrots species and discuss , say , genetic relationship with species of potatoes . , but the first time biology has been thrown to the side of the road , the second , the already found that paradigm can’t provide a complete answer to the ongoing discussion . In biology , because the species is an abstraction , not least the individual species are goods that are concrete , some kinds of goods can be easily felt than carrots . But the linguistic analogy to biological individual is idiolect ; and almost all , if not all , the same as a broad abstraction of the concept of language . We can’t hear idiolect Gaston as a form ; we can only hear the idiolect examples - comments which he says that he saw a tip that we left off , and it does not have idiolect example parallels in biology . So although it is not regarded as a particular problem by linguists of the nineteenth century , the question " How does understanding a form called a language or a dialect of the underlying reality that can be felt rather than specific utterances ? Remain open at that time . People who answer that can satisfy experts as well as experts during her today is the Swiss scholar : Ferdinand de Saussure

MONGIN Ferdinand de Saussure , his full name , was born in Geneva in 1857 , the son of the Huguenot families who moved from Lorraine during the French religious wars in the late sixteenth century . Although people now regard as the first Saussure provides a definition of the notion that so-called synchronic linguistics - the study of language support as the system contained in the given time , which is distinguished by historical linguistics ( which to distinguish Saussure called diachronic linguistics ) is for experts contemporaries is the only approach available for studying that time was - in his lifetime was not meant to make it famous . Saussure got educated as an ancient language , and successfully while still a young man published a book entitled Memoire sur lesysteme primitive dans les langues des Voyelles indo - europeennes ( 1878) . The book was published a few weeks after his birthday XXI : When he was a student in Germany . The book is one of the basic reconstruction of Proto- Indo- European language . Saussure gives Ecole Pratique des Hautes lecture Etudes in Paris from 1881 to 1891, before he returned to teaching in Geneva , all publishing , and almost all the lectures he gave , throughout his more than dealing with historical linguistics synchronic linguistics , with in-depth analysis about the various Indo- European languages ​​and not with the general theory that makes it famous now.

In fact , although Saussure produce his work on the theory of general linguistics at about 1890 ( Koerner , 1973: 29 ) , he seems reluctant to give it to someone else , and the story of how his ideas can go into publishing is a strange story . In late 1906 he was asked to take over responsibility in giving lectures on general linguistics and comparative history and languages ​​of the Indo - European from a scholar who has quit his service for 30 years ; Saussure taught the material on the rest of her student days and on the lectures in 1908-1909 and in 1910-1911 . In the first years of Saussure limit at only about historical matters ; but when he gave the two years he was also a brief introduction to post a synchronic linguistics , and the third lecture , the entire semester is used to provide synchronous linguistic theory . Shortly afterward he died , without a chance to publish any material that theory . Some people have been asked to publish , but he always answered that for preparing lecture materials very time-consuming , but two of his colleagues , Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye decided on a new fabric of the student lecture notes together with notes Saussure left college . The book they produced is called Cours de linguistique gererale ( Saussure 1916) is a medium that can be used by scholars in the world to understand the ideas of Saussure , Saussure and since this document is known as the father of twentieth -century linguistics .

Sabtu, 30 November 2013

Listening to music is good for the heart


Now a study has found that in fact music can strengthen the heart - and improve the recovery of patients suffering from heart disease.

Cardiologists said the findings suggested that all people could boost the health of their hearts simply by listening to their favourite tunes.

Patients with cardiac disease were divided into three groups. Some were enrolled in exercise classes for three weeks.

Others were put in the same classes, but also told to listen to music of their choice at any point for 30 minutes every day. A third group only listened to music, and did not take cardio-vascular exercise, which is usually prescribed to those with heart disease.

At the end of the trial, the patients who had listened to music as well as exercising had boosted crucial measures of heart function significantly, and improved their exercise capacity by 39 per cent.

            The group which only took aerobic exercise improved their capacity by 29 per cent. Even those who took no exercise and only listened to their favourite music for half an hour a day improved their exercise function by 19 per cent, the study of 74 patients found.

The measures of improved heart function included improved endothelial function, which is necessary to maintain the body's vascular response.

The findings, presented at the European Society of Cardiology's annual congress in Amsterdam, suggested that the release of key hormones while listening to music was behind the changes.

Prof Delijanin Ilic, the lead investigator, from the Institute of Cardiology, University of Nis, Serbia, said: "When we listen to music we like then endorphins are released from the brain and this improves our vascular health. There is no 'best music' for everyone - what matters is what the person likes and makes them happy."

She said other studies examining the impact of music suggested there might be some types of music which were less good for the heart - with heavy metal more likely to raise stress levels, while opera, classical and other types of 'joyful' music were more likely to stimulate endorphins.

Prof Ilic said: "It is also possible that it is better to have music without words, because it is possible that the words themselves can upset the emotions."

Although the study was carried out on patients suffering from heart disease, she said she believed the findings were likely to apply to a wider population, since it is already known that exercise boosts coronary health in healthy people.

Prof Ilic said: "Listening to favourite music alone and in addition to regular exercise training improves endothelial function and therefore may be an adjunct method in the rehabilitation of patients with coronary artery disease. There is no 'ideal' music for everybody and patients should choose music which increases positive emotions and makes them happy or relaxed."

1.      The group which only took aerobic exercise improved their capacity by 29 per cent. Even those who took no exercise and only listened to their favourite music for half an hour a day improved their exercise function by 19 per cent, the study of 74 patients found.

This sentence using relative pronoun because to modifying noun from word the group that doing exercise and the group only listened their favourite music.

2.      She said other studies examining the impact of music suggested there might be some types of music which were less good for the heart - with heavy metal more likely to raise stress levels, while opera, classical and other types of 'joyful' music were more likely to stimulate endorphins.

This sentence using past tense because to explain before that time someone already studied about examining the impact of music suggested there might be some types of music which were less good for the heart.

3.      Now a study has found that in fact music can strengthen the heart - and improve the recovery of patients suffering from heart disease.


This sentence using present perfect tense because there are (has + found)

Sabtu, 02 November 2013

How to Study Gerund and Gerund Phrase

Grammar Lesson: The Gerund and Gerund Phrase

·         gerund, the second type of verbal, ends in -ing and functions as a noun. A gerund's uses are many subject, direct object, subject complement (predicate nominative), appositive, and object of the preposition. If a gerund or the entire gerund phrase is removed from the sentence, the remaining words will not form a complete, logical sentence.
The underlined word in each sentence is a gerund. Its use is within the parentheses that follow the sentence.
Learning is fun for Kate and Moe. (subject)

Marcia loves sewing. (direct object)

A fun time for Rachel is reading. (predicate nominative)

His passion, traveling, inspired him in many ways. (appositive)

Geraldine has a love for traveling. (object of the preposition)

·         gerund phrase includes the gerund, its modifiers, and the words that complete the idea begun by the gerund. In each sentence, the gerund is italicized, and the gerund phrase is underlined.

Shopping for new dresses excites Terry Anne. (subject)

The orchestra members enjoy rehearsing for long periods of time. (direct object)

Tommy's passion is running long distances. (predicate nominative)

Joanna's love, running, kept her very fit. (appositive)

Can you pass the test by studying very hard this month?(object of the preposition)

Note: Remember that the same phrase can have several uses.

The man signaling to you is my grandfather. (participial phrase)
Signaling to you was not difficult. (gerund phrase)
The player passing the soccer ball is James. (participial phrase)

Passing the soccer ball was hard for that man. (gerund phrase)


·         4 Types of Gerunds and Gerund Phrases

The four types of gerunds and gerund phrases follow:
1.      Subject

Gardening is my favorite hobby. (Gardening is normally a verb, but here it is the name of an activity.)
Gardening in the summertime is a challenge because of the heat. (The gerund is followed by a modifying adverbial phrase, forming a gerund phrase.)

2.      Direct Object

My neighbors admire my gardening. (The admiration is not for the action of gardening, but for the results of the action.)
I am enjoying my gardening this year. (The direct object of the subject is “my gardening this year.”)

3.      Object of Preposition

I have received several awards for my gardening. (The awards have been given for the results of the activity.)
Some people consider my interest in gardening an obsession. (The gerund phrase is “gardening an obsession.”)

4.      Subject Complement

My favorite hobby is gardening. (Again, gardening is described as something done, not the act of doing it. The statement is the inverse of the first sentence in this group; here “My favorite hobby” is the subject, and gardening is its complement.)
I do my gardening in the morning. (The phrase “gardening in the morning” is the subject complement.)







·         Using Gerunds
Gerunds and infinitives are verb forms that can take the place of a noun in a sentence. The following guidelines and lists will help you figure out whether a gerund or infinitive is needed.
Following a verb (gerund)
Both gerunds and infinitives can replace a noun as the object of a verb. Whether you use a gerund or an infinitive depends on the main verb in the sentence. Consult the lists below to find out which form to use following which verbs.
anticipate having the report done by Friday.
[GERUND]
Some common verbs followed by a gerund (note that phrasal verbs, marked here with *, always fall into this category):
acknowledge
She acknowledged receiving assistance.
* accuse of
He was accused of smuggling contraband goods.
admit
They admitted falsifying the data.
advise
The author advises undertaking further study.
anticipate
He anticipates having trouble with his supervisor.
appreciate
appreciated having a chance to read your draft.
avoid
He avoided answering my question.
complete
I finally completed writing my thesis.
consider
They will consider granting you money.
defer
She deferred writing her report.
delay
We delayed reporting the results until we were sure.
deny
They denied copying the information.
discuss
They discussed running the experiments again.
entail
This review procedure entails repeating the test.
* look after
He will look after mailing the tickets.
* insist on
He insisted on proofreading the article again.
involve
This procedure involves testing each sample twice.
justify
My results justify taking drastic action.
mention
The author mentions seeing this event.
* plan on
They had planned on attending the conference.
postpone
The committee has postponed writing the report.
recall
I cannot recall getting those results before.
resent
He resented spending so much time on the project.
recommend
She recommends reading Marx.
resist
The writer resists giving any easy answers.
risk
She risks losing her viewing time.
sanction
They will not sanction copying without permission.
suggest
suggest repeating the experiment.
* take care of
He will take care of sending it to you.
tolerate
She can't tolerate waiting for results.



Following a preposition (gerund)
Gerunds can follow a preposition;
Can you touch your toes without bending your knees?
He was fined for driving over the speed limit.
She got the money by selling the car.
A corkscrew is a tool for taking corks out of bottles.
Note: Take care not to confuse the preposition "to" with an infinitive form, or with an auxiliary form such as have toused togoing to


He went back to writing his paper.
[PREPOSITION + GERUND]
used to live in Mexico.
[AUXILIARY + VERB]
want to go home.
[VERB + INFINITIVE]
Following an indirect object (infinitive only)
Some verbs are followed by a pronoun or noun referring to a person, and then an infinitive. Gerunds cannot be used in this position.
Some common verbs followed by an indirect object plus an infinitive:
ask
I must ask you to reconsider your statement.
beg
They begged her to stay for another term.
cause
His findings caused him to investigate further.
challenge
Wilkins challenged Watson to continue the research.
convince
Can we convince them to fund our study?
encourage
She encouraged him to look beyond the obvious.
expect
They did not expect us to win an award.
forbid
The author forbade me to change his wording.
force
They cannot force her to reveal her sources.
hire
Did the department hire him to teach the new course?
instruct
I will instruct her to prepare a handout.
invite
We invite you to attend the ceremony.
need
They need her to show the slides.
order
He ordered the group to leave the building.
persuade
Can we persuade you to contribute again?
remind
Please remind him to check the references.
require
They will require you to submit an outline.
teach
We should teach them to follow standard procedures.
tell
Did she tell him to make three copies?
urge
urge you to read the instructions before you begin.
want
I do not want you to have an accident.
warn
Why didn't they warn me to turn down the heat?



Sources :
-          http://www.dailywritingtips.com/4-types-of-gerunds-and-gerund-phrases/